Stress and trauma are often intensified when you are a member of a marginalized group. In fact, just being a member of a marginalized group can be stressful, especially in certain situations. This is why it is so important that outreach and programs be tailored to the specific needs of these groups and their wellness.
In your second assessment, you will focus on a particular marginalized groupthis group may be marginalized by race, gender, ethnicity, ability, or something else. You will write a paper about how being a member of this marginalized group can both create and add stress to a person’s life, as well as how common stressors may be impacted and intensified by being a member of a marginalized group. Finally, you will search for programs and services that are tailored to meet the needs of this group. You may find that services are lackingplease make recommendations for how services could be improved.
Remember that there are small things that we can do each day to reduce our feelings of stress and enhance wellness.
- You can make a list of everything that stresses youwhich in itself can be stressful, but you can then take items from that list and start to brainstorm how you can potentially handle each stressor (Chunn, 2017). So, grab a pen and start a list today.
- Therapists will often recommend to their clients that they keep a journal. Because of how the act of writing accesses areas of the brain, the simple act of writing down your thoughts and feelings begins to help you work through them and make sense of them. Try it for yourself and see! Consider placing some blank paper or an empty journal by your bedsidenext time you feel a rush of emotions, try jotting down some of them (Sutton, 2018).
References
Chunn, L. (2017). The psychology of the to-do listwhy your brain loves ordered tasks. The Guardian.
Sutton, J. (2018). 5 benefits of journaling for mental health. Positive Psychology.
To prepare for Assessment 1, take the following steps:
- Identify a marginalized population to focus on in your paper.
- Review this assessments readings as they relate to marginalized populations and their stress and trauma.
- Using the , locate 23 peer-reviewed journal articles related to your selected group and experiences of stress or trauma. You’ll need at least four articles for your paper, but you can use a couple journal articles from your reading list if you feel they apply.
- Using the Internet, search for outreach organizations or programs that target your selected group. Be prepared to make recommendations for services that would be helpful in managing and addressing stress.
Download the .
Write a 34 page paper that addresses the following. Remember that your supporting evidence should come from your textbook and at least four peer-reviewed journal articles.
- Identify a marginalized population. Explain why they are marginalized. Include supporting evidence.
- Explain how being a member of this population serves to create or add stress in a person’s life in general. Include supporting evidence.
- Note: You may use a group that you identify as a member of, or a group that you have interest in learning more about.
- Describe how 23 common stressors may be impacted as a result of being a part of this marginalized population. Include supporting evidence.
- Feel free to refer back to the worksheet you completed for Assessment 1.
- Make recommendations for outreach organizations, potential services, or programs that would be helpful to your selected population. Include supporting evidence.
- Length: 34 pages.
- Font and font size: use a minimum of 12-point font.
- Resources: Use a minimum of five sourcesyour textbook and at least four peer-reviewed journal articles found in the and your reading list
- The topic I chose is children with autism (ASD)here are the book chapters you need for this assingment
- CHAPTER 1The Nature of StressI cannot and should not be cured of my stress, but merely taught to enjoy it.
Hans Selye
Are you stressed? If the answer is yes, then consider yourself to be in good company. Stress before the coronavirus pandemic of 2020 was noted to be at the highest level in decades, an all too common behavioral trend. In fact, according to a 2019 Gallup poll, Americans reported the highest stress levels (anger and anxiety) in a decade, placing them as the most stressed people in the world (Ray 2019). The coronavirus (COVID-19) epidemic that started in the spring of 2020 has only made matters worse, with the United States surpassing China and Italy in the number of those infected. Moreover, the fallout from the pandemicthose physically affected by COVID-19 and the panic it producedhas sent tremors of stress around the world. Mandated lockdowns, self-isolation, panic buying, massive layoffs and work furloughs, social distancing, forced immobilization, canceled high school and college graduations, postponed weddings, canceled professional sports, empty stadiums, shuttered Broadway productions, closed movie theaters, bare grocery store shelves, online funeralsnearly every aspect of society has been affected by this worldwide pandemic. Boredom, impatience, defiance, anger, and fear have all surfaced as people continue to just try to get by in the face of adversity. The world we were raised in is NOT the world we are living in.
Even before the pandemic, across the board, without exception, people admitted to having an increasing sense of anxiety, frustration, unease, and discontent in nearly every aspect of their lives. From the lingering effects of the coronavirus pandemic and its ensuing economic effects to job market challenges; college loan debt; environmental issues, such as allergies to genetically modified (GM) foods, overpopulation, and climate changerelated weather incidents (e.g., devastating hurricanes and severe droughts); increases in autism; concerns with global finance; gun violence and terrorist attacks, the symptoms of stress can be found everywhere. Ironically, in a country with a standard of living that is considered to be one of the highest anywhere in the world, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that nearly one-quarter of the American population are on antidepressants and that as many as one in three suffers from a chronic disease such as cancer, coronary heart disease, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes, or lupus, among many others. Something is very wrong with this picture!
Since the start of the Great Recession in 2008, a blanket of fear and anger has covered much of the country, if not the world, keeping people in a perpetual state of frustration and anxiety. The coronavirus pandemic has only added more stress to an already fragile global society. Planetary problems only seem to intensify our personal stressors. It doesnt make a difference if youre a college student or a CEO of a multinational corporation, where you live, or how much money is in your checking accountstress is the equal opportunity destroyer! But it doesnt have to be this way. Even as personal issues collide with social and planetary problems, creating a perfect storm of stress, we all have choicesin both our attitude and behaviors. This textbook will help you connect the dots between mind, body, and spirit to create positive choices that empower you to navigate your life through the turbulent waters of the human journey in the twenty-first century. - CHAPTER 2The Sociology of StressAmericans are the most entertained and least informed people on the planet.
Robert F. Kennedy, Jr.
Todays world is a very different place from the one that existed when Walter Cannon coined the phrase fight-or-flight response and Hans Selye first uttered the words general adaptation syndrome. Little did they know just how much stress would become a part of the social fabric of everyday life in the twenty-first centurymore so now than even 10 years ago. Conventional wisdom as well as common sense suggests that our collective stress is a result of our inability to keep up with all the changes that are influencing so many aspects of our lives. Simply stated, our physiology has not evolved at a comparable rate to the multitude of social changes of the last half-century. Perhaps it never will.
What happens when your world gets turned upside down to the point that it is barely recognizable anymore? This is exactly what happened with the spread of the coronavirus (COVID-19) in 2020panic shopping (e.g., toilet paper), social distancing, self-quarantines, government-requested lockdowns, layoffs, canceled graduations, canceled senior proms, postponed Olympics, suspension of entire professional sports seasons, online funerals, the list goes on and on. The term social distancing became woven into everyday conversation as people found themselves locked down and quarantined in their homes for months. Mental health experts sounded the alarm about a perfect storm of stress and sufferingsocial isolation, germaphobia and the anxiety about health, and devastating economic realitiespredicting an increase in depression and suicide rates (Heid 2020).
As the new normal took hold, people began to reevaluate what their lifestyles were before the virus outbreak. Many found they preferred a less-rushed lifestyle. Despite the fact that people were stuck at home, with limited freedom to move about, many began to examine and question their personal priorities and values. On social media, people were asking what normal should look like once restrictions were lifted. Many people found that their pre-virus behaviors were unsustainable. COVID-19 was a national, and global, health crisis, but it also became a colossal personal wakeup call with regard to how we live our lives and the specific changes that need to be made as the new normal proceeds.
Social behaviors changed dramatically during the COVID-19 quarantine and associated social distancing measures, with handshakes becoming elbow bumps and hugs between friends becoming nonexistent. Interestingly, when denied the opportunity to leave their homes, many people opted to make phone calls or video calls to friends and family rather than text as they normally did, perhaps out of a need to feel more connected. Though people kept their distance, they smiled more to each other. People showed kindness to grocery store clerks, hospital janitors, and people who earned a minimum wage serving food and stocking grocery store shelves. Though impatience was evident with some groups of people, politeness came back in style (after the guilt of panic buying). Although many people could read e-books on their screen devices, bookstores across the country reported colossal sales of actual paper books. People put down their devices and curled up with a good book. Where possible, people went outdoors to parks, gardens, and beaches to get back to nature. On a global scale, carbon dioxide emissions fell dramatically due to the sharp drop in industrial output and travel, and other air pollution levels declined as well, giving a nod of respect to the planets climate change problem. In essence, the coronavirus pandemic became the catalyst for a global social reset. Just how long these new behaviors will last remains to be seen. What is certain is that this pandemic has changed the face of social norms forever. Much of what you will read in this chapter may look like a peek at a distant culture, but in essence, it explains several issues that have begged for change, because these behaviors promoting fear, greed, racial disparity, and social injustice have been tearing the social fabric to shreds. Please read this chapter with one eye on the past and one eye on the future as you continue to navigate through the societal changes brought on by world events destined to continue changing the world we live in.
Futurist Alvin Toffler warned of many of these changes decades ago in his best-selling book Future Shock (1984). In a National Public Radio (NPR) interview celebrating the 40th anniversary of his book, Toffler stated that the future shock he described then is here now. Future Shock described the stress that accompanies overwhelming change, such as changes with globalization, technology, and social patterns.
Douglas Rushkoff is a social media theorist and author of the book Present Shock (2013), a timely sequel to Tofflers Future Shock. Whereas Toffler predicted that rapid change was coming, Rushkoff states that the whirlwind of change is now here. Our impatient society, he states, has become reoriented to the present moment with the likes of Twitter, Facebook, Tumblr, and Instagram. In Rushkoffs words, Everything is live, real time, and always-on. Citizens with smartphones now post current events on YouTube faster than CNN can get a camera crew to report the headline news (as has become evident at any school shooting or political protest). Email has given way to instant messaging, blogs have been replaced by Twitter feeds, and world events are now streamed live on YouTube. Linear time has become compressed into a collection of single moments, each forgotten as we become immersed in the next. As someone with his finger on the pulse of social media, Rushkoff sees a new series of stressors and problems with the syndrome he calls present shock. They include the following:
Narrative collapse: Because so much attention is placed on the present moment, people cannot get a clear perspective on their lives (e.g., addressing problems of global warming or saving for retirement). Life events are reduced to myopic 140-character tweets or quick Facebook status updates, losing the bigger context of ones life.Digiphrenia: The tacit permission to be in more than one place at a time with a variety of social media.Overwinding: The ability to reduce big-time scales into small ones and, as a result, getting less done.Fractalnoia: The anxiety associated with rapid media grazing and jumping to conclusions with incomplete information in the absence of a cause-and-effect perspective.Moreover, the need for instant gratification mixed with voyeurism and ego-grooming becomes a recipe for stress. Peoples eyes may have adapted to viewing multiple screens and fingers may have adapted to smaller keypads finding multiple search engines, but the human nervous system interprets the bombardment of sensory stimulation as overload and adapts through the general adaptation system (GAS).
Author and physician Roberta Lee (2010) has a new name for this intense state of stresssuperstress. As a practitioner on the front lines of health care, she sees the result of superstress in patients who live hectic and demanding lifestyles, and in whom chronic stress ultimately translates into chronic disease. She predicts that this association will only increase if people dont take time to integrate effective stress management skillsspecifically meditation, exercise, and healthy eating habitsinto their daily lives.
Holmes and Rahe, the creators of the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (1967), were dead-on regarding the various social aspects of life that can destabilize ones personal equilibrium, even when the best coping skills are employed. Yet, no matter what corner of the global village you live in, the stresses of moving to a new city or losing a job are now compounded by significant twenty-first-century issues. We are a product of our society, and societal stress is dramatically on the rise. A quick look at current headlines provides a window on the impact of societal stress on the individual:
More Millennials Are Dying Deaths of Despair as Overdose and Suicide Rates ClimbThe Average American Worker Takes Less Vacation Time Than a Medieval PeasantInmates Spend More Time Outside Than KidsIts Now Been Three Long Years Since Flint Had Clean Water22 Percent of Millennials Say They Have No Friends53 Million Americans Drowning in Cycle of Low-Wage WorkExperts who keep a finger on the pulse of humanity suggest that as rapid as these changes are now, the rate and number of changes are only going to increase.
Its not just the changes we encounter that affect our stress levels, but also how we engage with these new changes. Increasingly, this engagement is online. Unfortunately, the stress that is provoked is real, not just virtual. The majority of social media sites are littered with negative comments, frustrations, expletives, fictional narratives and rants, all of which suggest a malaise in the general public combined with an unparalleled freedom to honestly express oneself anonymously. While its true that Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube continue to play a significant role in the social changes of many countries, such as Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, Syria, Turkey, and China, many people are persecuted for expressing these freedoms publicly.
Being overwhelmed with choices in communication technology for staying in touch with friends, colleagues, and employees leads to a whole new meaning of burnout. Being tied to smartphones and tablets after work hours is bringing about a cry for worklife balance (and in some cases lawsuits for inappropriate overtime work). And then there is the stress associated with the creative freedom gained or lost in cyberspace. Although freedom and creativity have been elevated to new heights by the Internet, in todays narcissistic and exhibitionist society, anyone can publish a book, release a song, be a critic, star in a YouTube video, comment on a blog, and claim their full 15 minutes of fame many times over. The rest of the world looks on in what can be described as e-voyeurism.
The world is rapidly changing, and with it, the culture in which we liveall of which holds the potential to add layers upon layers of stress on each individual. Simply stated, one cannot examine personal stress levels without looking at intertwining social mores and cultural trends, because whether consciously or not, we are greatly influenced by them all. As the expression goes, Each of us is a product of our culture. As much as we might like, we cannot renounce the world and move to the nearest monastery or Amish community. By moving en masse, we would only take all our cultural tendencies with us. In the words of John Donne, No man is an island. The social fabric connects us all. However, some people are making a serious effort to change the fabric of the social culture, providing living examples of how to reduce the collective stress level. These people, too, make the headlines, but mostly as curiosities:
Customers boycott use of plastic straws at fast food restaurantsTeen climate activist Greta Thunberg inspires millions to protest peacefullyMore people are biking to work rather than driving their carsComedian pays school lunch debt of thousands of studentsPhysiology, psychology, anthropology, theologythe topic of stress is so colossal that it is studied by researchers in a great many disciplines, not the least of which is sociology. Sociology is often described as the study of human social behavior within families, organizations, and institutions; basically, it is the study of the individual in relationship to society as a whole. Because everybody is born into a family and most people work for a living, no one is exempt from the sociology of stress. Revising John Donnes observation for the modern era, No man or woman is an island. Whether we like it or not, we are all connected to each other.
But what if it is not we who are stressed per se, but rather the society and culture we live in (or have created)? Poorly designed urban sprawl with no consideration of sidewalks or nature paths for exercise. Food deserts in our nations cities. Poorly drafted legislation regarding working mothers. Perpetual issues of gender and race inequality that are so woven into the fabric of society that they are often hidden to those fortunate enough to even know what stress management is (e.g., white privilege). This is the argument made by Dana Becker in her book One Nation Under Stress (2013), in which she discusses what she calls the stress and the biopolitics of American life. In an overview of the past several decades, Becker, a professor of social work at Bryn Mawr College in Pennsylvania, cites many examples of societal stress that contribute to personal strife, particularly affecting women, minorities, and the poor. She contends that for stress to be addressed fully, it must be reconciled from a societal perspective, or what she calls the wear and tear of society.
Perhaps the sociology of stress can best be acknowledged through the buzzword social networking, which describes the likes of Facebook, Twitter, Skype, YouTube, TikTok, Snapchat, and Instagram, as well as new social media and networking outlets looming on the horizon. Technology has even changed how people converse at a dinner party (e.g., one person asks a question and five people pull out their smartphones and Google the answer). Technology, the economy, and the environment have become significant threads of the social fabric. This chapter examines some of the most current issues and trends in the global society and their potential to increase stress for each of us personally. - CHAPTER 3The Physiology of StressIts not that stress kills us, it is our reaction to it that kills us.
Hans Selye
Hans Selyes discovery of a direct relationship between chronic stress and the excessive wear and tear throughout the body laid the foundation for a clearer understanding of how physiological systems work in an extremely complex and integrative way. Perhaps because of this discovery and the fact that physical deterioration is so noticeable, much attention has been directed toward the physiology of stress. This chapter will take you through some basic concepts that explain the physiological dynamics involved with the stress responsespecifically, the immediate, intermediate, and prolonged effects of stress on the body. These processes will be explained in terms of pathways that prompt the systematic and integrative steps of the stress response into action. Because physiology involves specific nomenclature outside the realm of your everyday vocabulary, you may find the nature of this chapter to be very specific and its contents very detailed. Most likely it will merit more than one reading to fully grasp, understand, and appreciate how the body responds to stress. The importance of a strong familiarity with human physiology as influenced by stressful stimuli becomes evident when the necessary steps are taken to effectively deal with the symptoms they produce, especially when using relaxation techniques. For example, it is important to know how the body functions when using specific imagery, visualization, music therapy, autogenic training, progressive muscular relaxation, and biofeedback.
In many circles, this topic of study is referred to as psychophysiology. This term reflects the fact that a sensory stimulus (perceived threat) that prompts the stress response must be processed at the mental level before it can cascade down one or more physiological pathways. In other words, the term psychophysiology suggests that there is a mind-body relationship and supports the theory that many diseases and illnesses are psychosomatic, meaning that their origins lie in the mind through the higher brain centers. Although the mind-body dualism suggested by Descartes is no longer a viable model for a complete understanding of human physiology, to hold an appreciation of the whole person we must first examine the parts to understand how they connect to that whole.
Three systems are directly involved with the physiology of stress: the nervous system, the endocrine system, and the immune system, all of which can be triggered by perceived threats. - CHAPTER 5Toward a Psychology of StressModern man is sick because he is not whole.
Carl Gustav Jung
For centuries, scientists have debated the relationship between the mind and the brain. Is the mind a function of the brain, a series of biochemical reactions, or is the mind a complex dynamic of consciousness, a separate entity unto itself that uses the brain as its primary organ of choice? This question has polarized researchers to believe either that all thoughts and feelings can be explained as neurochemical messages transmitted from brain cell to brain cell or that the mind exists separately from the brain yet somehow is housed and fused with it. This one question, perhaps more than any other, initiated the discipline of psychology at the turn of the twentieth century. As the mind-body connection is more closely examined with regard to the stress response, it becomes increasingly clear that the mind is a very complex phenomenon, and not merely a by-product of neurochemical interactions. The interactions of thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and personality traitsthe mind is held accountable for all of them, and a bit more (Baruss and Mossbridge 2017). In this chapter, we will look at how the mind perceives stress so that we can update our understanding of the stress response, highlighting some specific aspects of the psychology of stress.
Since the advent of the discipline of psychology, many notable figures have made significant contributions to the understanding of the mindspecifically, those regarding personality, emotions, perceptions, and a whole realm of human behaviors. From these individuals have come a host of theories attempting to interpret the complexities of emotional well-being on which stress has so great an influence. These theories have been inspired by such questions as: Why does the mind perceive some events as threatening? What cognitive dynamics are used to deal with psychological stress? The list of those people who have contributed to the body of knowledge of human consciousness would comprise a book in itself, not the least of which includes Albert Ellis (Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy), Richard Lazarus (daily hassles), and countless others. Although no one theorist seems to explain the psychological aspects of stress in its totality, together the following theories at least begin to address several significant issues involved. The following psychiatrists, psychologists, and therapists offer a glimpse into some of the greatest insights into the minds role in the psychology of stress. - CHAPTER 7Stress-Prone and Stress-Resistant Personality TraitsIf you are depressed you are living in the past. If you are anxious you are living in the future. If you are at peace you are living in the present.
Lao Tzu
In the summer of 1966, at the age of 55, Nien Cheng (FIG. 7.1) was placed under house arrest in her private home in Shanghai. It was the dawn of the Cultural Revolution in Mao Tse-Tungs communist China. Thousands of innocent people found themselves incarcerated, political prisoners accused of being enemies of the state. Educated in London, employed by Shell Oil as a management advisor, and widow of a former official of Chiang Kai-shek, Nien Cheng quickly became the target of several Communist indictments. She was soon moved from house arrest to solitary confinement, in a cell no bigger than a walk-in closet, at the Number 1 Detention House for political prisoners. Convinced she had committed no crime, she defended her innocence despite hunger, disease, intimidation, terror, and humiliation. Many innocent prisoners perished from the torture of the communist Red Guards, yet Nien Cheng was determined not merely to survive but to prove her innocence. Upon her release in 1972, after 6 and a half years in solitary confinement, she was declared a victim of false arrest. At this time, she frantically sought the whereabouts of her only daughter. What she discovered about the fate of Meiping Cheng made it impossible for her to remain in her homeland. In 1980, Nien Cheng immigrated to North America, whereupon she wrote of how she prevailed over this tumultuous experience in her stirring autobiography, Life and Death in Shanghai (2010). As a guest speaker in my Strategies for Stress Reduction class, Mrs. Cheng was asked what it was that allowed her to survive such a harrowing ordeal. Gracefully, she answered, I saw my stay at the detention house as a challenge, and with the grace of God, I was committed to proving my innocence. She left no doubt that she demonstrated a special personality in surviving her ordeal.FIGURE 7.1 Nien Cheng was falsely imprisoned at age 56 for 6 and a half years during the rule of Mao Tse-Tung. She credited her survival to many factors, including commitment to her innocence and patience, which helped her cope with a grueling ordeal.
Inspiration Unlimited. Used with permission.
Until her death in 2009 at age 94, Nien Cheng practiced Tai Chi chuan daily and stayed current with world events. In my last conversation with her, in which she reflected back on that time in prison as well as present-day events, she said, Patience is an important aspect of survival, as is faith. The pace of the world has become quite fast today. Please tell your students how important it is to employ these inner resources.
Many words can be used to describe the likes of Nien Cheng and others who express the epitome of the triumph of the human spiritNelson Mandela, Rosa Parks, and scores of unsung heroeswho have overcome great adversity to declare victory and move on with their lives. However, perhaps the best word is to say that they show resiliency. Resiliency is the new catchphrase in corporate stress management circles. It is also the new buzzword in military training, where soldiers and military officers are being taught skills to cope with stress both on the battlefield and in the transition back to civilian life. The most common definition of resiliency is the ability to bounce back from a crisis. The people we call heroes share a common personality trait: resiliency. For some its innate; for most its learned.
Although almost everyone has a concept of what personality is, scholars in the field of psychology have yet to agree on a definition of the term. The word originally derives from the Latin word persona, meaning mask, as in the masks used by actors in ancient Greek plays. In more contemporary times, personality has come to mean a conglomeration of several characteristicsbehaviors, expressions, moods, and feelingsthat are perceived by others. The complexity of ones personality is thought to be shaped by genetic factors, family dynamics, social influences, and a wealth of personal experiences. Just as there are many definitions, there are also many theories of personality that attempt to explain the differences in psychological makeup from one person to another. The basis of many of these theories centers on whether these traits and behaviors are primarily innate or learnedthe nature-versus-nurture question. No clear-cut answers have emerged, and whether personality can actually be changed is still being argued. The research findings are fascinating but quite inconclusive. Can a person change his or her personality? As with the ability to improve ones IQ, the answer seems to be yes! Pessimists can become optimists. Curmudgeons can learn to laugh regularly. Introverts can abandon shyness. Addicts can remain drug free. There are many theories of personality, and even more complexities to these theories, that make a one-size-fits-all understanding impossible. While one school of thought suggests that personality is hard, if not impossible, to change, another school of thought suggests that personality can change, but it takes constant work and attention to minimize negative aspects and groom positive aspects (Bleidorn 2019). Over the past several decades, efforts to more favorably change personality have included the most likely component of ones personality that can be alteredbehaviors. By changing various personality traits, one can change ones personality. It is this consensus that has led to the formation of, and emphasis on, behavior modification, counseling, and classes in health promotion programming, including stress management.
The story of Nien Cheng, and those like her, is a remarkable testimony to the strength of the human spirit. Stories of resilience in the face of suffering have prompted psychologists and psychiatrists to try to identify which personality types are more prone to suffering the effects of stress, and which seem to be immune or resistant to it. Although the search has not been easy, researchers have identified specific personality traits and behaviors, classified as personality types, that have begun to shed some light on the difficult relationship between personality and disease. They include Type A behavior, codependent personality, helpless-hopeless personality, hardy personality, survivor personality, and sensation-seeker or Type R personality. As people strive to learn more about themselves, these labels have now become household words in North America. What follows is a look at these personality types and the factors that separate stress-prone from stress-resistant traits and behaviors. - CHAPTER 18Diaphragmatic BreathingLet the air breathe for you.
Emmett Miller, M.D.
Diaphragmatic breathing is unequivocally the easiest method of relaxation to practice. It is easy because breathing is an action that we do normally without thought or hesitation. In its simplest form, diaphragmatic breathing is controlled deep breathing. It is symbolic of a deep sigh or a big breath taken when one is about to regroup ones thoughts, gain composure, or direct ones energies for a challenging task. What makes normal breathing different from diaphragmatic breathing is its emphasis on expansion of the chest. Diaphragmatic breathing involves the movement of the lower abdomen. In the practice of yoga, this technique is called pranayama, or the restoration of ones energy or life force, the breath behind the breath.
Most Americans breathe emphasizing upper chest and thoracic cavity movement while deemphasizing abdominal movement. This is thought to be a learned behavior influenced by cultural preferences for a large chest and small waist. As children mature, they shift from abdominal to thoracic breathing. When fast asleep, however, without the influence of the conscious mind, all individuals revert back to breathing by distending the stomach, as the diaphragm is allowed to expand and contract without inhibition.
Over the past two decades, the use of diaphragmatic breathing has become well accepted in childbirth (Nakahata 1993). A major tenet of the Lamaze childbirth method is controlled belly breathing. In Lamaze classes, expectant mothers (and fathers) are taught to place the emphasis of their breathing on the lower stomach. Then, during the several hours of labor and delivery, this breathing skill is employed to ease pain. And what is taught and practiced for the stressful event of childbirth is now taught and practiced for several other stressful situations as well.for the peer reviewed artciles I will provide below;
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